Describe does how we look uncover our personality?

  
Assignment Instructions
THIS IS FOR WEEK 3!!
The Learning Reflection Journal is a compilation of weekly learning reflections you’ll independently write about across Weeks 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7. During each of the assigned weeks, you will write two paragraphs, each 300 words in length (i.e., 600 words total). The first paragraph will describe a topic that you found particularly interesting during that week and what made it interesting, and the second paragraph will describe something that you have observed occurring in the real world that exemplified that topic. Only one topic may be recorded in the journal for each assigned week and your observed real word occurrence must be clearly related to it.
READING
https://bigthink.com/videos/why-some-apples-fall-far-from-the-tree
A Biological Component of Personality: Temperament
· GENETIC IMPACT
· HANS EYSENCK
· JEFFREY GRAY
· MARVIN ZUCKERMAN
· HEMISPHERES
Let’s look at how we can see this genetic impact through its effect on temperament. Just what is temperament? It refers to individual differences in behavioral inclinations that are biologically based and remain relatively stable over time. We can see these differences very easily in babies. Some are shy and slow to warm up to new situations while others are outgoing seemingly at ease and ready to explore novel situations. There are different models of temperament, but these four seem to garner the most agreement among personality theorists: activity, sociability, impulsivity, and emotionality.
A Unique Research Methodology: Twin Studies
Twin studies have long been used to link genetics to personality. Identical twins share the same genetic makeup due to the splitting of one fertilized ovum. Fraternal twins, on the other hand, who are the result of two separate eggs being fertilized at the same time, do not share any more of an identical genetic makeup than two siblings who are not twins. The Minnesota Twin Study revealed that even identical twins raised apart from each other share many of the same traits and habits. However, it has also been shown that twins raised apart from each other have less similarity of traits than those raised together. This suggests that there is an environmental influence also at work. Similarities in personality are greater in identical twins than fraternal twins.
It is important to note that twins and siblings do not necessarily experience the same upbringing. This diversity in how children in the same household experience the environment differently is called nonshared environmental variance. For example, the first born child is often treated differently than the last born child or a boy child may be treated differently than a girl. This results in a shared environment being experienced differently by each child.
Many studies have shown that schizophrenia can run in families and has a genetic link. Thus, if one has a schizophrenic parent or sibling the odds of schizophrenia rise. If one has an identical twin with the disease the odds rise even more dramatically. This correlation exists even if the twins were raised in different households. It is not clear; however, if schizophrenia is purely a genetic disease. Structural abnormalities of the brain have been found in those suffering from schizophrenia. Concordance or the probability of a match between identical twins is neither conclusive nor exclusive.
There is not much solid, noncontradictory research findings on a genetic link to homosexuality partly, due to the values and mores of society, which have served to stigmatize homosexuality. Twin studies have shown that homosexuality appears to have some biological foundation, but genes are not the whole answer. We cannot rule out the role culture and rearing may play. How can we look at homosexuality from an evolutionary perspective? Perhaps the kin selection hypothesis will give us an answer or perhaps there is some other answer that further research will yield.
Illness and Disease
Illness, environmental toxins, and drugs can all cause disturbances in our personality and behavior. Many of us have heard the expression mad as a hatter, but how many of you know that its origin is the result of hatters being poisoned by the mercury used to make the felt hats? This continual exposure to mercury led to brain damage and subsequent alterations of brain function and behavior. Even today children are still being poisoned by being exposed to lead and other toxic heavy metals. Lead is known to damage a child’s nervous system and impair both cognitive and behavioral function. This can translate into personality problems such as antisocial behavior. There are known personality changes associated with both illegal drugs such as cocaine and prescription drugs such as thyroid medications.
Diseases can also impact our personality and subsequent behavior. It is known that Vincent Van Gogh suffered from Meniere’s disease. This disease is an inner ear disorder whose symptoms include:

dizziness
nausea
disturbance in hearing

Alzheimer’s disease is a disease that mainly affects older persons. It is characterized by memory loss and behavioral changes. As the disease progresses profound personality changes are present right up to the loss of the personality itself. Strokes can also initiate serious changes in personality. Depending on the region of the brain that is damaged noted changes can be increased or decreased aggression and uncooperative behavior.
WHY DO WE LOOK AT THE EFFECTS OF TOXINS, DRUGS, AND DISEASE? 
Biology and Environment Interactions
Biology can affect the environments we live in. A perfect example is a baby who continually cries and is difficult to soothe. Before very long the parents become increasingly frustrated and irritated. This leads to the infant now living in an environment of exasperation and vexation. This type of environment then influences our personality. The process is repeated with certain characteristics of temperament inclining us to particular experiences which will help shape our personality. This tendency to seek out certain types of environments is called tropism. We are either moving in the direction of health-promoting or health-threatening environs.
Does how we look uncover our personality? W.H. Sheldon expanded on the work of Ernst Kretschmer, a German psychiatrist who pondered if there was an association between physique and mental maladies. Sheldon measured people’s physical ratios and came up with a theory about how underlying physiological body type was related to the types of experiences we choose. His body types or somatotypes as he labeled them are endomorphs, ectomorphs, and mesomorphs.
The way other people react to how we look has a great influence on how we view ourselves. There has been much research done on correlating beauty with goodness, smartness, and kindness. This idea then influences how people treat us which in turn shapes our worldview and our personality.
Evolution of Social Behavior
Sociobiologists study the function of the evolution of social behavior. The attachment of a child to its primary caregiver is an example of a biologically based social behavior. Sociobiological analyses are most often applied to human aggression, mating rituals, and family interactions. The motivation to give preferential treatment to one’s own children over-step or adopted children is motivated by self-interest and the desire to enhance and preserve one’s own genetic matter. This is termed by sociobiologists as the Cinderella Effect.
Over time there has been much misuse and misinterpretation of knowledge in regard to genetics. One of the most misunderstood concepts is Charles Darwin’s idea about the survival of the fittest. Simply stated it proposes that the fittest individuals evolve and reproduce and those who are less able to compete well in their environment will be less likely to grow up and reproduce. It does not mean that weaker individuals and cultures should not survive. This idea of Social Darwinism prompted American immigration laws to exclude so-called inferior groups, the Nazi dream of a master race which led to genocide, and eugenics and the forced sterilization of different groups.
The Human Genome Project is an effort to isolate all of the genes in our chromosomes. What if we succeed in doing so? What implications does this have for our future? Do we stop genetic tinkering after we have neutralized or eliminated some undesirable genetic problems as we have discussed? Or do we resurrect the idea of genetic purity and a master race?
The Behaviorist and Operant Conditioning
What is a behaviorist or learning approach to personality? Let’s look at the behaviorist approach first. Unlike Freud’s psychoanalytic approach to personality, which concerns itself with thinking and emotion, the behaviorist is primarily interested in observable behaviors which are linked to a stimulus. It posits that behaviors are learned through the application of positive and negative reinforcers.
The foundation of behaviorist thought was laid down by Ivan Pavlov, who discovered the principle of classical conditioning, which pairs an unconditioned stimulus and response with a neutral stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus will elicit a conditioned response. Other terms commonly used are generalization, discrimination, and extinction. In more modern terms we can say that many of our reaction patterns are the result of classical conditioning. Our likes and dislikes are often the result of positive or negative pairings of stimuli. These factors also help us to clarify some emotional qualities of personality. Some behavioral responses can be conditioned. It does not answer some more complex dimensions such as neuroticism.
John Watson is considered the father of the behaviorist approach. He advanced several views such as that psychology should be studied scientifically by observing behavior. He argued that no matter how complex a behavior is, it can eventually be reduced to stimulus and response and the environment determines behavior. He applied conditioning to condition fear of furry objects in an eleven-month-old baby named Little Albert. This was a demonstration in humans of Pavlov’s theory of conditioning in animals. He also developed the process of systematic desensitization. This process gradually extinguishes a phobia by presenting the feared object in small steps until the fear response is ended.
Classical Conditioning
B.F. Skinner was a psychologist whose views were a bit less rigid than those of Watson. He believed that while we had a mind it was more useful to study observable behavior than the internal workings of mental events. He felt that classical conditioning was too one-dimensional to give a complete explanation of human behavior and that one needed to sift out the causes of an act and its consequences. He called this operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is about consequences. By that, it is meant positive versus negative reinforcement and negative reinforcement versus punishment. He developed various schedules of reinforcement in order to demonstrate the success rate of the different levels of contingencies. His schedules are continuous versus partial reinforcement, ratio versus interval schedules and fixed versus variable schedules. We still see these principles being used today in so-called token economies in treatment centers and school for children and adults with certain mental disabilities.
Skinner wrote a novel entitled Walden Two which describes a utopian community of a behaviorally planned society in which the principles of operant conditioning are applied. There is only positive reinforcement and all people live in contentment. His later book Beyond Freedom and Dignity reinforced these ideas. Skinner was a determinist, which means that he believed all behavior was caused. He believed that physical factors enhanced or hindered the organism’s ability to learn in response to reinforcers. He did not believe that people had a free will and while he acknowledged emotions, he felt them to be irrelevant in the study of behavior.
Other approaches in opposition to the idea that behavior is strictly a response to environmental factors take into account the person’s state of being. For example, whether the person is tired or hungry would be taken into account while trying to explain the observed behavior.
To view a video overview of the role that behavioralism and operant conditioning have played in the field of psychology and our understanding of what might be construed as personality, click here.
Other Learning Theorists
Clark Hull was interested in the nature of habits. These are simple associations in learning theory between stimulus and response. He concerned himself with the primary drives such as hunger and thirst and he turned his attention to the internal condition of the subject during learning while also acknowledging environmental factors.
The social learning theory proposed by Dollard and Miller concerns itself with a hierarchy of acquired drives. This theory posits that this is how habits are built. Say, you were attracted to a guy or gal who was physically very attractive and you went out on a date with him. During the date, the person became very physically aggressive with you and you were assaulted. According to this theory, you now have learned to avoid very good looking people and actually become anxious in their presence. This acquired drive of anxiety may force you to learn a new behavior such as dating very attractive people only if it is a double date with someone you know is not dangerous. This learned secondary drive is a habit hierarchy or particular responses in particular situations. According to this theory, mental illness can be explained as approach avoidance conflict, approach conflict, and avoidance avoidance conflict. Finally, we come to the frustration aggression hypothesis which states that aggression is the result of thwarting a person’s ability to attain a goal.
WHAT IS THE VALUE OF BEHAVIORISM TO PERSONALITY? 
Conclusion
In summary, biological and learning approaches brought a degree of empiricism to the study of personality that heretofore had not been used by early theorists in the field. This emphasis on observable and measurable phenomenon has yielded important discoveries with regard to how individuals develop across the lifespan. In addition, because these approaches place a premium on hypotheses being testable, as opposed to early theorists in the field, new hypotheses and theories in these areas can be proven or disproven and, as such, the field can advance accordingly and avoid being stuck with ideas that haven’t been proven to have real utility.
Personality Theory
Created July 7, 2017 by userMark Kelland
           The social learning theorists observed that the complexity of human behavior cannot easily be explained by traditional behavioral theories.  Bandura recognized that people learn a great deal from watching other people and seeing the rewards and/or punishments that other people receive.  Social learning theorists do not deny the influence of reinforcement and punishment, but rather, they suggest that it can be experienced through observation and does not require direct, personal experience as Skinner would argue.  In addition, observational learning requires cognition, something that radical behaviorists consider outside the realm of psychological research, since cognition cannot be observed.  Bandura took a broad theoretical perspective on social learning, whereas Rotter and Mischel focused more closely on specific cognitive aspects of social learning and behavior.
           It is also important to point out an artificial distinction that is difficult to avoid in the chapters of this section.  Chapters 10, 11, and 12 are roughly set up as chapters on radical behaviorism and formal learning theory, followed by social learning, and then concluding with cognitive theories on personality development.  However, as will be evident, the chapters overlap a great deal.  For example, Dollard and Miller’s attempt to find a middle ground between Freud and Skinner led to their initial descriptions of social learning, which provided a prelude to this chapter.  Bandura, Rotter, and Mischel address a number of aspects of cognition in their theories, but they are not as completely focused on cognition as are Kelly, Beck, and Ellis, hence the separation of this chapter from the following one.  In Social Learning Theory, Bandura had this to say:
           A valid criticism of extreme behaviorism is that, in a vigorous effort to avoid spurious inner causes, it has neglected determinants of behavior arising from cognitive functioning…Because some of the inner causes invoked by theorists over the years have been ill-founded does not justify excluding all internal determinants from scientific inquiry…such studies reveal that people learn and retain behavior much better by using cognitive aids that they generate than by reinforced repetitive performance…A theory that denies that thoughts can regulate actions does not lend itself readily to the explanation of complex human behavior. (pg. 10; Bandura, 1977).
Albert Bandura and Social Learning Theory
           Bandura is the most widely recognized individual in the field of social learning theory, despite the facts that Dollard and Miller established the field and Rotter was beginning to examine cognitive social learning a few years before Bandura.  Nonetheless, Bandura’s research has had the most significant impact, and the effects of modeling on aggressive behavior continue to be studied today (see “Personality Theory in Real Life” at the end of the chapter).  Therefore, we will begin this chapter by examining the basics of Bandura’s social learning perspective.
Brief Biography of Albert Bandura
           Albert Bandura was born in 1925, in the small town of Mundare, in northern Alberta, Canada.  His parents had emigrated from Eastern Europe (his father from Poland, his mother from the Ukraine), and eventually saved enough money to buy a farm.  Farming in northern Canada was not easy.  One of Bandura’s sisters died during a flu pandemic, one of his brothers died in a hunting accident, and part of the family farm was lost during the Great Depression.  Nonetheless, the Bandura family persevered, and maintained a lively and happy home.
           Although Bandura’s parents lacked any formal education, they stressed its value.  Despite having only one small school in town, which lacked both teachers and academic resources, the town’s children developed a love of learning and most of them attended universities around the world.  Following the encouragement of his parents, Bandura also sought a wide variety of other experiences while he was young.  He worked in a furniture manufacturing plant, and performed maintenance on the Trans-Alaska highway.  The latter experience, in particular, introduced Bandura to a variety of unusual individuals, and offered a unique perspective on psychopathology in everyday life.
           When Bandura went to the University of British Columbia, he intended to major in biology.  However, he had joined a carpool with engineering and pre-med students who attended classes early in the morning.  Bandura looked for a class to fit this schedule, and happened to notice that an introductory psychology course was offered at that time.  Bandura enjoyed the class so much that he changed his major to psychology, receiving his bachelor’s degree in 1949.  Bandura then attended graduate school at the University of Iowa, in a psychology department strongly influenced by Kenneth Spence, a former student of Clark Hull.  Thus, the psychology program at the University of Iowa was strongly behavioral in its orientation, and they were well versed in the behavioral research conducted in the psychology department at Yale University.
           As we saw in the previous chapter, John Dollard and Neal Miller had established the field of social learning at Yale in the 1930s, but they had done so within the conceptual guidelines of Hullian learning theory.  Bandura was not particularly interested in Hull’s approach to learning, but he was impressed by Dollard and Miller’s concepts of modeling and imitation.  Bandura received his Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1952, and then began a postdoctoral position at the Wichita Guidance Center.  Bandura was attracted to this position, in part, because the psychologist in charge was not heavily immersed in the Freudian psychodynamic approach that was still so prevalent in clinical psychology.
           Following his postdoctoral training, Bandura became a member of the faculty at Stanford University, where he spent the rest of his career.  The chairman of Bandura’s department had been studying frustration and aggression, and this influenced Bandura to begin his own studies on social learning and aggression.  This research revealed the critical role that modeling plays in social learning, and soon resulted in the publication of Adolescent Aggression (co-authored by Richard Walters, Bandura’s first graduate student; Bandura & Walters, 1959).  This line of research also led to the famous “Bobo” doll studies, which helped to demonstrate that even young children can learn aggressive behavior by observing models.  Bandura then became interested in self-regulatory behavior in children, and one of the colleagues he collaborated with was Walter Mischel, whose work we will address later in this chapter.  During his long and productive career, Bandura became more and more interested in the role played by cognition in social learning, eventually renaming his theory to reflect his social cognitive perspective on human learning.  He also examined the role of the individual in influencing the nature of the environment in which they experience life, and how their own expectations of self-efficacy affect their willingness to participate in aspects of that life.
           Bandura has received numerous honors during his career.  Included among them, he has served as president of the American Psychological Association and received a Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from APA.  He received the William James Award from the American Psychological Society (known today as the Association for Psychological Science), a Guggenheim Fellowship, the Distinguished Contribution Award from the International Society for Research in Aggression, and a Distinguished Scientist Award from the Society of Behavioral Medicine.  Bandura has also been elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, to the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences, and he has received numerous honorary degrees from universities around the world.  The list goes on, not the least of which is his Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Award, received from APA in 2004.
Placing Bandura in Context:  Social Learning Theory Establishes Its Independence
    Although social learning theory has its foundation in the work of Dollard and Miller, they addressed social learning in the context of Hullian learning theory (complete with mathematical formulae).  Bandura shifted the focus of social learning away from traditional behavioral perspectives, and established social learning as a theory on its own.  Bandura also freely acknowledged cognition in the learning process, something that earlier behaviorists had actively avoided.  By acknowledging both the external processes of reinforcement and punishment and the internal cognitive processes that make humans so complex, Bandura provided a comprehensive theory of personality that has been very influential.
    Although Bandura criticized both operant conditioning and Pavlovian conditioning as being too radical, he relied on a procedure that came from Pavlovian conditioning research for one of his most influential concepts:  the use of modeling.  The modeling procedure was developed by Mary Cover Jones, a student of John B. Watson, in her attempts to counter-condition learned phobias.  Subsequent to the infamous “Little Albert” studies conducted by Watson, Jones used models to interact in a pleasant manner with a rabbit that test subjects had been conditioned to fear.  After a few sessions, the test subjects were no longer afraid of the rabbit (see Stagner, 1988).  This may have been the first use of behavior therapy, and Bandura’s use of the procedure helped to bring together different behavioral disciplines.
    Perhaps one of Bandura’s most significant contributions, however, has been the application of his theory to many forms of media.  Congressional committees have debated the influence of modeling aggression through violent television programs, movies, and video games.  We now have ratings on each of those forms of media, and yet the debate continues because of the levels of aggression seen in our schools, in particular, and society in general.  Bandura’s Bobo doll studies are certainly among of the best known studies in psychology, and they are also among the most influential in terms of practical daily applications.  The long list of awards that Bandura has received is a testament to both his influence on psychology and the respect that influence has earned for him.
Reciprocal Determinism
           One of the most important aspects of Bandura’s view on how personality is learned is that each one of us is an agent of change, fully participating in our surroundings and influencing the environmental contingencies that behaviorists believe affect our behavior.  These interactions can be viewed three different ways.  The first is to consider behavior as a function of the person and the environment.  In this view, personal dispositions (or traits) and the consequences of our actions (reinforcement or punishment) combine to cause our behavior.  This perspective is closest to the radical behaviorism of Skinner.  The second view considers that personal dispositions and the environment interact, and the result of the interaction causes our behavior, a view somewhat closer to that of Dollard and Miller.  In each of these perspectives, behavior is caused, or determined, by dispositional and environmental factors, the behavior itself is not a factor in how that behavior comes about.  However, according to Bandura, social learning theory emphasizes that behavior, personal factors, and environmental factors are all equal, interlocking determinants of each other.  This concept is referred to as reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1973, 1977).
           Reciprocal determinism can be seen in everyday observations, such as those made by Bandura and others during their studies of aggression.  For example, approximately 75 percent of the time, hostile behavior results in unfriendly responses, whereas friendly acts seldom result in such consequences.  With little effort, it becomes easy to recognize individuals who create negative social climates (Bandura, 1973).  Thus, while it may still be true that changing environmental contingencies changes behavior, it is also true that changing behavior alters the environmental contingencies.  This results in a unique perspective on freedom vs. determinism.  Usually we think of determinism as something that eliminates or restricts our freedom.  However, Bandura believed that individuals can intentionally act as agents of change within their environment, thus altering the factors that determine their behavior.  In other words, we have the freedom to influence that which determines our behavior:
    …Given the same environmental constraints, individuals who have many behavioral options and are adept at regulating their own behavior will experience greater freedom than will individuals whose personal resources are limited. (pg. 203; Bandura, 1977)
Discussion Question:  According to the theory of reciprocal determinism, our behavior interacts with our environment and our personality variables to influence our life.  Can you think of situations in which your actions caused a noticeable change in the people or situations around you?  Remember that these changes can be either good or bad.
Observational Learning and Aggression
           Social learning is also commonly referred to as observational learning, because it comes about as a result of observing models.  Bandura became interested in social aspects of learning at the beginning of his career.  Trained as a clinical psychologist, he began working with juvenile delinquents, a somewhat outdated term that is essentially a socio-legal description of adolescents who engage in antisocial behavior.  In the 1950s there was already research on the relationships between aggressive boys and their parents, as well as some theoretical perspectives regarding the effects of different child-rearing practices on the behavior and attitudes of adolescent boys (Bandura & Walters, 1959).  Much of the research focused, however, on sociological issues involved in the environment of delinquent boys.  Choosing a different approach, Bandura decided to study boys who had no obvious sociological disadvantages (such as poverty, language difficulties due to recent immigration, low IQ, etc.).  Bandura and Walters restricted their sample to boys of average or above average intelligence, from intact homes, with steadily employed parents, whose families had been settled in America for at least three generations.  No children from minority groups were included either.  In other words, the boys were from apparently typical, White, middle-class American families.  And yet, half of the boys studied were identified through the county probation service or their school guidance center as demonstrating serious, repetitive, antisocial, aggressive behavior (Bandura & Walters, 1959).
           Citing the work of Dollard and Miller, as well as others who paved the way for social learning theory, Bandura and Walters began their study on adolescent aggression by examining how the parents of delinquents train their children to be socialized.  Working from a general learning perspective, emphasizing cues and consequences, they found significant problems in the development of socialization among the delinquent boys.  These boys developed dependency, a necessary step toward socialization, but they were not taught to conform their behavior to the expectations of society.  Consequently, they began to demand immediate and unconditional gratification from their surroundings, something that seldom happens.  Of course, this failure to learn proper socialization does not necessarily lead to aggression, since it can also lead to lifestyles such as the hobo, the bohemian, or the “beatnik” (Bandura & Walters, 1959).  Why then do some boys become so aggressive?  To briefly summarize their study, Bandura and Walters found that parents of delinquent boys were more likely to model aggressive behavior and to use coercive punishment (as opposed to reasoning with their children to help them conform to social norms).  Although parental modeling of aggressive behavior teaches such behavior to children, these parents tend to be effective at suppressing their children’s aggressive behavior at home.  In contrast, however, they provide subtle encouragement for aggression outside the home.  As a result, these poorly socialized boys are likely to displace the aggressive impulses that develop in the home, and they are well trained in doing so.  If they happen to associate with a delinquent group (such as a gang), they are provided with an opportunity to learn new and more effective ways to engage in antisocial behavior, and they are directly rewarded for engaging in such behaviors (Bandura & Walters, 1959; also see Bandura, 1973).
           Having found evidence that parents of aggressive, delinquent boys had modeled aggressive behavior, Bandura and his colleagues embarked on a series of studies on the modeling of aggression (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961, 1963a,b).  Initially, children were given the opportunity to play in a room containing a variety of toys, including the 5-foot tall, inflated Bobo doll (a toy clown).  As part of the experiment, an adult (the model) was also invited into the room to join in the game.  When the model exhibited clear aggressive behavior toward the Bobo doll, and then the children were allowed to play on their own, they children demonstrated aggressive behavior as well.  The children who observed a model who was not aggressive seldom demonstrated aggressive behavior, thus confirming that the aggression in the experimental group resulted from observational learning.  In t

Explain fertilization process from cellular level to fetus

After studying the course materials located on Module 1: Lecture Materials & Resources page, answer the following:

Explain the following concepts:

Asexual – sexual reproduction.
Mitosis – Meiosis
Diploid – Haploid
Gametes
Fertilization
Zygote
Syngamy
Blastocyst
Implantation
Gastrulation
Embryo – Fetus

Explain fertilization process from cellular level to fetus (as per video time 1:08:00)
After learning about fertilization process, and according to nature and objectively, and scientifically speaking, when does human life begin? Why?
Read and summarize Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Health Care Services (ERD) PART FOUR Introduction.

“Economic Equilibrium through Different Lenses: A study of Utility, Pain, Pleasure, and Scarcity.”

Description

Write an essay of at least 5 pages on the following:

NOTE: The point of the essay is not to work through the details of the different theories; nor to judge each, on its own, or in relation to the others, and to other lines in economic thought: are they right or wrong? The point is to think through the ways in which they define what economic theory should be, what it should include and exclude, and how it should study what needs to be studied.

Jevons founds his economic theory on the calculus of pain and pleasure adopted from Bentham. Walras and Menger found their theories on scarcity: they define the economic as the situation that arises when the quantity of goods is insufficient to satisfy all the wants to be satisfied by those goods.
I don’t think that there is any fundamental opposition between these two approaches: both employ the concept of utility, and, especially, that of marginal utility (though none of the three – Jevons, Menger, Walras – uses the term “marginal utility” itself). They are all looking for a mechanism to bring about an equilibrium of supply and demand. Nonetheless, pain and pleasure on the one hand, scarcity on the other, are not the same. So:
What is similar, and what is different in the starting-points themselves – pain and pleasure, scarcity? Is there a difference in their focus? Does one point you in a different direction than the other? What is similar in the mechanisms? Is there anything significantly different? Will there be significant differences in the result?
(Note: later neoclassical economics, on the whole, goes for the scarcity approach; and, for example, Robbins, Hicks and Mises all reject pain and pleasure at least in their Benthamite form. You don’t need to take this up, but it’s worth remembering.)
Some references:
Jevons, W” The Theory of Political Economy, 1 or 2nd edition.
Walras, L ” Elements of Theoretical Economics 3rd edition
Menger,C” principles of Economics

Define the key term warrant, and provide exceptions to the warrant requirement.

Prior to beginning work on this video presentation, read Fourth Amendment: Search and SeizureLinks to an external site., The Difference Between the 5th and 6th Amendment Right to CounselLinks to an external site., Probable Cause and Reasonable SuspicionLinks to an external site., Saul Ornelas and Ismael Ornelas Ledesma, Petitioners v. United StatesLinks to an external site., and Pre-Trial MotionsLinks to an external site..
The fourth, fifth and sixth amendments are the most important of the Bill of Rights which affect criminal law, prosecutions, and defenses in the United States. Consider the protections against unreasonable searches and seizures, the right to remain silent, the right to due process, the right to counsel, and the right to a speedy trial as the “Holy Grail” of constitutional protections for those accused of a crime.
Part 1: Your PowerPoint (or equivalent) presentation:
If your last name begins with the letters A through G (fourth amendment). Create a five- to eight-slide PowerPoint explaining the fourth amendment. Additionally, provide 50 to 75 words of explanations for each of your PowerPoint slides in the discussion area, just as you would present an oral presentation explaining the slides on the topics listed. In your PowerPoint slides and discussions,

List the requirements of the fourth amendment.
Define the key term warrant, and provide exceptions to the warrant requirement.
Examine what the remedy is for a defendant when a motion granted to suppress is granted for a fourth amendment violation.

Making your PowerPoint (or equivalent) Presentation
You may wish to include visual enhancements in your presentation. These may include appropriate images, a consistent font, appropriate animations, and transitions from content piece-to-content piece and slide-to-slide. (Images should be cited in APA format as outlined by the University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center’s Tables, Images, & AppendicesLinks to an external site. resource.) The Where to Get Free (and Legal) ImagesLinks to an external site. guide provides assistance with accessing freely available public domain and/or Creative Commons licensed images. It is recommended that you access the University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center’s How to Make a PowerPoint PresentationLinks to an external site. and Simple Rules for Better PowerPoint PresentationsLinks to an external site. which provide useful assistance with creating successful PowerPoint presentations.
Part 2: Your computer screen video recording (Screencast) of a PowerPoint (or equivalent) presentation:

Take photos of key points in each exercise, and place them in PowerPoint using appropriate titling and transitions.
Write speaker’s notes as a script for your presentation at the bottom of each slide.
Use Screencast-O-Matic Download Screencast-O-Maticto record your presentation and voice. (You will need either a laptop’s built-in microphone or an external microphone headset to record your voice).
Using the screen cast software package, obtain a link to share with others.

Posting:

Paste your video link, and post your PowerPoint file within your initial post in this discussion forum.

Share social conformity situations that you have experienced and apply social psychology theory to explain your actions in those situations.

 
OBEDIENCE
The intent of social psychology research has been and still is to explain how circumstances are more a power determinant of individual behavior than our own intuitions lead us to believe. Research on obedience and compliance is focused less on explaining why obedience can be a good thing—which it can—and more on explaining why people obey/comply with demands when they would likely prefer not to or when the demands compel them to do bad things (e.g., the classic Milgram and Stanford Prison studies).
Many are familiar with the experience of being tasked by someone in authority (e.g., a teacher, work supervisor, athletic coach) to do something of questionable value and which may be counterproductive. The demand itself appears to be arbitrary and may serve only to establish the authority of the person making it.
For this Discussion, you will share social conformity situations that you have experienced and apply social psychology theory to explain your actions in those situations.
RESOURCES

Be sure to review the Learning Resources before completing this activity.Click the weekly resources link to access the resources. 
WEEKLY RESOURCES 
TO PREPARE

Review the Learning Resources related to conformity and obedience and consider how they would apply to this Discussion.
Consider a time when you have experienced when compliance with a task was required, even when you believed that time could have been better spent doing something more productive. The task may have come from a teacher, supervisor, coach, or other authority figure.
If you complied with the order, reflect on why. If you did not, reflect on why you did not comply. 

BY DAY 4
Post an example of a time when you complied with an authority person’s demand, despite thinking it was not a good use of your time. Please explain why you did. Then, give an example of a time when you refused to comply; explain why. Your post must be informed by social psychology theory and research.
RESOURCES/REFERENCES
 

Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., Akert, R. M., & Sommers, S. R. (Eds.). (2019). Social psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Chapter 8, “Conformity and Obedience: Influencing Behavior” 

Note: Viewing media and interactives embedded in the electronic version of this course text is not required for this course.
Aagerup, U. (2018). Accessible luxury fashion brand building via fat discrimination. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management,Links to an external site. 22(1), 2–16.doi:10.1108/JFMM-12-2016-0116
Griskevicius, V., Goldstein, N. J., Mortensen, C. R., Cialdini, R. B., & Kenrick, D. T. (2006). Going along versus going alone: When fundamental motives facilitate strategic (non)conformity. Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyLinks to an external site., 91(2), 281–294.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.281
Doli?ski, D., Grzyb, T., Folwarczny, M., Grzyba?a, P., Krzyszycha, K., Martynowska, K., & Trojanowski, J. (2017). Would you deliver an electric shock in 2015? Obedience in the experimental paradigm developed by Stanley Milgram in the 50 years following the original studies. Social Psychological and Personality Science,Links to an external site. 8(8), 927–933.   https://go.openathens.net/redirector/waldenu.edu?url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617693060

Your company (the parent company) has tasked you with identifying the best organizational structure for the start-up.What type of organizational structure are you recommending and why? What are the key advantages of the structure you are proposing? Are there any disadvantages?

Begin reading Chapters 10, 11 and 12 in course textbook
Robbins, S. P., & Coulter, M. (2016). Management, 13th Edition. Pearson Education.
Part a 

Why do organizations need to have structure?
How do organizations choose an organizational structure?

Part b
You are the Chief Human Resources Officer (CHRO) of a large tech company in Silicon Valley and your company has just acquired a small start-up company that has recently developed an apparatus that can introduce a drug into the human body subcutaneously without the use of a needle. This small start-up has ten employees and all are either programmers or medical researchers including the two founders of the start-up. The two founders, Mike and Ike, are both 25 years old and are not savvy business people.
Your company (the parent company) has tasked you with identifying the best organizational structure for the start-up.
You are now making your presentation to the Board as to what organizational structure you’re recommending to be implemented at the start-up company. Some members of the Board have asked you the following questions:
(For this role-play you will answer the following questions…)

Do we need to develop an organizational structure for the start-up company or could it just remain the same as the management structure of the parent company?
What type of organizational structure are you recommending and why?
What are the key advantages of the structure you are proposing? Are there any disadvantages?

You are a medical professor in charge of creating college assignments and answers for medical college students. You design and conduct lectures, evaluate student performance and provide feedback through examinations and assignments. Answer each question separately. Include and Introduction. Provide an answer to this content

Begin reading Chapters 10, 11 and 12 in course textbook
Robbins, S. P., & Coulter, M. (2016). Management, 13th Edition. Pearson Education.
Part a 

Why do organizations need to have structure?
How do organizations choose an organizational structure?

Part b
You are the Chief Human Resources Officer (CHRO) of a large tech company in Silicon Valley and your company has just acquired a small start-up company that has recently developed an apparatus that can introduce a drug into the human body subcutaneously without the use of a needle. This small start-up has ten employees and all are either programmers or medical researchers including the two founders of the start-up. The two founders, Mike and Ike, are both 25 years old and are not savvy business people.
Your company (the parent company) has tasked you with identifying the best organizational structure for the start-up.
You are now making your presentation to the Board as to what organizational structure you’re recommending to be implemented at the start-up company. Some members of the Board have asked you the following questions:
(For this role-play you will answer the following questions…)

Do we need to develop an organizational structure for the start-up company or could it just remain the same as the management structure of the parent company?
What type of organizational structure are you recommending and why?
What are the key advantages of the structure you are proposing? Are there any disadvantages?

. Do not write who you are in the answer.

What are some of the ways that Pitney Bowes has aligned its goals for diversity with a market-driven approach to meeting its customers’ needs?

 
Assignment:
Assignment – Part 1:
In this assignment, you are the game show host for the Diversity game (attached PowerPoint).
Gather two or three friends or family members as contestants. If you have more, divide them into two groups. Use a piece of paper to keep score and print the second page of the presentation to mark which questions were incorrectly answered. 
1. Open the PowerPoint Diversity game. Start the Slideshow to begin.
Read these instructions to the teams:

One person (or team) will randomly be selected to choose the first question category and level. Once a question is read aloud, all person (or team) will debate the answer. One team will raise a hand or use his or her assigned team noisemaker when the team is ready to answer.
I will call on the first team to respond. If they answer correctly, they will receive the number of points indicated, and they will choose the next question category and level. If their answer is incorrect, I will call upon the second team and so on.
In the event that no team answers the question correctly, I will give the correct response. The team that chose last still has control of the board and should choose the next question.
Scores will be recorded and the winner announced at the end of the round. There will be one round of 25 questions (or two rounds of 25 questions each if you also play Double Diversity).

2. Once you have the “board” displayed, and the first team has selected their question, click one of the cells to reveal a question.
3. To return to the main board, click on the “Diversity” icon in the lower right corner of the screen.
4. If the game is close, use the Double Diversity board.  To advance to the Double Diversity board, click the logo in the top-right (above “The Amazing Race”) of the main game board. This will take you to the Double Diversity! board (Board 2). 
After playing the game, discuss with the contestants why they believe they missed some of the questions.
Write a 500-word essay that evaluates the game play, your thoughts on why questions were correctly and incorrectly answered, and what you learned from the game. 
Assignment – Part 2:
Select three of the following five prompts.  Write a response of at least 300 words for each of the three prompts:

What was one of your earliest experiences concerning race? Describe the experience, how you felt, and how the experience was handled. If you could rewrite that experience, how would you change it and/ or how it was handled?
Explain the concept of “best practice” and what it means in the context of diversity strategy. What are the challenges of developing and implementing best practices? What are the potential benefits?
What are some of the ways that Pitney Bowes has aligned its goals for diversity with a market-driven approach to meeting its customers’ needs? Be specific.
What is/are the common theme(s) between the Bowman exercise and the Miner article?
Review the author’s list of 46 examples of white privilege. Critically evaluate which of these indicate white privilege and which might be artifacts of other forces (market forces, personal choice, etc.). 

 Submit both Assignments in the same document.
Assignment Expectations:

Why is it important to engage employees in implementing an employee assistance program? 

The role of human resources in creating total rewards that meet employees’ wants and needs is important for attracting talent, retaining top performers, promoting employee satisfaction, and much more. Communicating total rewards offerings to top talent assists with understanding the value of all the monetary and non-monetary rewards an organization provides. From benefits to compensation, what total rewards do you value most? Is there anything from the readings in Module Five and Six that stood out to you as something you would love in an organization? 
Before you begin, review the examples of total rewards packages from various companies in the Resources section of this module.  
Then, for your initial post, address the following: 

Identify three different examples of compensation or benefits that would matter most to you when considering a job offer. Be sure to explain why each would be important to you. 
Identify three examples of compensation or benefits that would not matter to you when considering a job offer. Explain why. 

Finally, respond to at least two of your peers by assuming the role of an HR professional at a company trying to create a total rewards program. Specifically, be sure to address the following: 

How could you use the information your peers shared about how they rank various benefits to inform the decisions you make in designing, implementing, and managing a total rewards program?  
What other factors will influence how you perform your HR functions related to total rewards? 

Textbook: Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, Chapter 14 opens in new window, sections LO 14.6, LO 14.7, LO 14.8, and LO 14.9 In these sections, you will learn how organizations can use benefits to match employees’ wants and needs, how to choose the contents of an employ benefits package, how to design and administer benefit programs, and how to effectively communicate the nature and value of benefits to employees. As you read, consider the following:  

Why is it beneficial to match benefits to an employee’s wants and needs? 
What do HR professionals need to consider when choosing benefits for a total rewards program? Why? 
Why do legal regulations affect the design and administration of total rewards? 
Why is the way that HR professionals communicate the nature and value of benefits important? 

Reading: Rethinking Total Reward Strategies opens in new window In this article, you will explore how employees’ diverse and changing preferences directly impact the administration of total rewards. As you read, consider the following: 

Why do total rewards impact employee retention? 
What are current trends in employees’ preferences for total rewards offerings? 
How and why are total rewards mixed and matched to meet workforce needs?  

Reading: How an Employee Assistance Program Benefits Your Company opens in new window An Employee Assistance Program is an employee benefit program that assists employees with personal and professional needs to improve their wellness, job performance, emotional well-being, and mental health. This article dives deeper into the value of these programs and explores relevant trends. As you read, consider the following: 

What is the role of HR professionals in managing employee assistance programs? 
Why is it important to engage employees in implementing an employee assistance program? 
Why is it beneficial to design an employee assistance program that encompasses wellness, job performance, emotional well-being, and mental health options? 

Examples of Total Rewards PackagesThe following list is a collection of total rewards packages from three different organizations. These resources will help you complete the discussion in this module. 

Describe the challenges that the LGBTQ+ communities face in the community.

1. 
Ethical Standards for Human Services Professionals and Generic Human Services Professional Competencies adopted by the National Organization for Human Services do not include language or competencies specific to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) communities. Without a specific ethical code and/or competency outlined by the field, human services practitioners do not have clear guidelines for their work with these populations. Additionally, researchers lack a way to formally measure professionals’ abilities with these populations. This leaves potential for these historically marginalized populations to continue to be in a vulnerable position. To address these needs, established competencies in other helping professions (i.e., counseling and social work fields) relative to LGBT populations, and argue that creating LGBT specific competencies in the human services field will lead to more competent practice and support the purpose of ethical guidelines which in part is to serve as a basis for self-monitoring and improving practice.
Advancing the human services field by developing specific LGBT competencies offers an opportunity to set the standard for working with these populations and contributes to establishing a preventative culture. A preventative culture encompasses an ethics ideology which has a focus on preventing recurring ethical issues by developing ethical guidelines and quality control measures to address systemic gaps. The ultimate goal of this culture is to minimize or prevent future conflicts and improve service delivery to these populations. Through the establishment of a preventative ethics culture in the human services field, organizations could better plan for situations that require intervention. Specific LGBT ethical codes and/or competencies would address this call by supporting the intent of ethical guidelines which are to educate professionals, and provide a framework for professional accountability, while serving as a basis for self-monitoring and improving practice.
2.  LGBTQ+ communities face many challenges. They are discriminated against and bullied. They must worry about being accepted by their families and friends when they “ come out.” Many members of this community have thought about suicide. Not knowing how to cope with this, some abuse substances. Members of the LGBTQ+ community do not seek professional mental help or medical help due to fear of being judged. Many older Americans are stuck in their ways and believe in traditional relationships. Also, religion plays a significant role in accepting LGBTQ+ people.“Discrimination in health care settings endangers LGBTQ people’s lives through delays or denials of medically necessary care. For example, after one patient with HIV disclosed to a hospital that he had sex with other men, the hospital staff refused to provide his HIV medication. In another case, a transgender teenager who was admitted to a hospital for suicidal ideation and self-inflicted injuries was repeatedly misgendered and then discharged early by hospital staff. He later committed suicide.” (Director et al., 2022)
There are many programs to help LGBTQ+ people against bullying and discrimination and to help them find the medical help they deserve. There are laws to protect people from being discriminated against. Knowing where these programs are for your area is vital for human service professionals.Organizations can increase LGBTQ+ inclusion by making gender-neutral bathrooms. Pride month is June, and celebrating LGBTQ+ people shows inclusion. Training employees on diversity can help eliminate the terrible stigma against LGBTQ. Employers should make sure promotions are equal across the board.Everyone is human, and just because someone believes differently doesn’t mean they are wrong. The world needs diversity. Everyone brings something different to the table. Sexual orientation doesn’t determine work quality and should not matter. Understanding your client makes it easier for them to trust you.
Should religious people discriminate against someone because their sexual preference differs from their beliefs? 

Analyze ways in which leaders and managers can effectively initiate, shape, and support organizational change.

 
Write internal report that assesses specific change factors you have observed within a selected organization to determine a specific change recommendation and the potential benefits that would come with its implementation.
Introduction
It is important to be able to accurately diagnose the higher priority needs for change in organizations and to develop a high-level process for initiating that change. In this assessment, you will analyze the factors driving change and how these change factors impact an organization of your choice. The emphasis here is not on how to change but on what to change and why.
Preparation
Do the following:

Choose an organization. This can be where you currently work or an organization with which you are familiar.
Select a change model that best applies to a change needed in your selected organization. If you are unfamiliar with organizational change models, you may choose to use those in the Organizational Change: An Action-Oriented Toolkit text.
Research your selected change model and John Kotter’s 8-step model. Use the Capella University Library to find three to five resources to support your assessment.

Scenario
After your recent success heading up a staff development initiative, your supervisor’s boss has asked that you devote part of your time each week to supporting a task force that explores opportunities for positive change within the organization. After an initial orientation meeting with the rest of the change task force, you have been asked to create an internal report in which you assess specific change factors that you have observed within the organization to determine a specific change recommendation and the potential benefits that would come with its implementation.
Your Role
Imagine that you work in any organization you choose in any position you like. For the sake of simplicity, you may choose to imagine your present position at a company where you already work. Whatever your other responsibilities, you are now also tasked with providing change leadership within the organization.
Requirements
Using Kotter’s 8-step model and one other change model of your choice, write a report in which you analyze aspects of the change needed for your chosen organization. Include the following in your analysis:

Describe a change challenge facing the selected organization to sustain success.
List the factors that are driving change for this selected organization.
Identify the type of change that is needed for the selected organization.

You may find Figure 3.1 in the Mastering the Challenges of Leading Change text useful for this identification.

Assess the organization’s readiness for change and ways to heighten awareness. Use the force field analysis model for this assessment. You may use the Force Field Analysis Template [DOC] to guide your work.
Articulate recommendations for change for the selected organization. These are recommendations you would eventually deliver to the organization’s executive leadership team. Make sure you support your recommendations with research. Remember, the emphasis here is not on how to change but on what to change, and why.

Your analysis should be written coherently to support a central idea, in appropriate APA format, with correct grammar, usage, and mechanics as expected of a business professional.
Deliverable Format
In your last meeting with the rest of the change task force, it was collectively agreed that your recommendation would take the form of an internal report that could be shared with other stakeholders within the company. This report should be 5–7 pages, so that you have enough space to develop your ideas and provide some academic support. Since you plan to share your report with the rest of the change task force, your supervisor’s boss, and other internal stakeholders, you want this document to be well organized and readable.
Internal Report requirements:

References: Support the analysis in your report with 3–5 academic resources from the Capella University Library. You must use proper APA style to list your references.
Length: 5–7 pages, in addition to the references list.
Written communication: Demonstrate graduate-level writing skills through accurate communication of thoughts that convey the overall goals of the analysis and do not detract from the message.
Formatting: Use APA formatting, including correct in-text citations, proper punctuation, double spacing throughout, proper headings and subheadings, no extra line spaces before headings and subheadings, proper paragraph and block indentation, no bolding, one-inch margins all around, and no bullets.
Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12 point.

Evaluation
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies through corresponding scoring guide criteria:

Competency 1: Assess the complex and dynamic nature of organizational change.

Describe a change challenge facing the selected organization to sustain success.
List the factors that are driving this selected organization’s change.

Competency 2: Analyze ways in which leaders and managers can effectively initiate, shape, and support organizational change.

Assess the organization’s readiness for change and ways to heighten awareness.

Competency 3: Analyze the processes of change in people, groups, and organizations.

Describes the type of change that is needed for the selected organization.
Articulate recommendations for change for the selected organization.

Competency 5: Communicate effectively in a professional manner.

Communicate in a manner that is scholarly, professional, and consistent with expectations for business professionals.

Faculty will use the scoring guide to review your deliverable as if he or she were your immediate supervisor. Review the scoring guide prior to developing and submitting your assessment.